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<h1 id="特征-trait"><a class="header" href="#特征-trait">特征 Trait</a></h1>
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<p>如果我们想定义一个文件系统,那么把该系统跟底层存储解耦是很重要的。文件操作主要包含四个:<code>open</code> 、<code>write</code>、<code>read</code>、<code>close</code>,这些操作可以发生在硬盘,可以发生在内存,还可以发生在网络 IO 甚至(...我实在编不下去了,大家来帮帮我)。总之如果你要为每一种情况都单独实现一套代码,那这种实现将过于繁杂,而且也没那个必要。</p>
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<p>要解决上述问题,需要把这些行为抽象出来,就要使用 Rust 中的特征 <code>trait</code> 概念。可能你是第一次听说这个名词,但是不要怕,如果学过其他语言,那么大概率你听说过接口,没错,特征跟接口很类似。</p>
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<p>在之前的代码中,我们也多次见过特征的使用,例如 <code>#[derive(Debug)]</code>,它在我们定义的类型(<code>struct</code>)上自动派生 <code>Debug</code> 特征,接着可以使用 <code>println!("{:?}", x)</code> 打印这个类型;再例如:</p>
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<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
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</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
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</span>fn add<T: std::ops::Add<Output = T>>(a:T, b:T) -> T {
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a + b
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}
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<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
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<p>通过 <code>std::ops::Add</code> 特征来限制 <code>T</code>,只有 <code>T</code> 实现了 <code>std::ops::Add</code> 才能进行合法的加法操作,毕竟不是所有的类型都能进行相加。</p>
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<p>这些都说明一个道理,特征定义了<strong>一组可以被共享的行为,只要实现了特征,你就能使用这组行为</strong>。</p>
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<h2 id="定义特征"><a class="header" href="#定义特征">定义特征</a></h2>
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<p>如果不同的类型具有相同的行为,那么我们就可以定义一个特征,然后为这些类型实现该特征。<strong>定义特征</strong>是把一些方法组合在一起,目的是定义一个实现某些目标所必需的行为的集合。</p>
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<p>例如,我们现在有文章 <code>Post</code> 和微博 <code>Weibo</code> 两种内容载体,而我们想对相应的内容进行总结,也就是无论是文章内容,还是微博内容,都可以在某个时间点进行总结,那么总结这个行为就是共享的,因此可以用特征来定义:</p>
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<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
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</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
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</span>pub trait Summary {
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fn summarize(&self) -> String;
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}
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<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
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<p>这里使用 <code>trait</code> 关键字来声明一个特征,<code>Summary</code> 是特征名。在大括号中定义了该特征的所有方法,在这个例子中是: <code>fn summarize(&self) -> String</code>。</p>
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<p>特征只定义行为看起来是什么样的,而不定义行为具体是怎么样的。因此,我们只定义特征方法的签名,而不进行实现,此时方法签名结尾是 <code>;</code>,而不是一个 <code>{}</code>。</p>
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<p>接下来,每一个实现这个特征的类型都需要具体实现该特征的相应方法,编译器也会确保任何实现 <code>Summary</code> 特征的类型都拥有与这个签名的定义完全一致的 <code>summarize</code> 方法。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<h2 id="为类型实现特征"><a class="header" href="#为类型实现特征">为类型实现特征</a></h2>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>因为特征只定义行为看起来是什么样的,因此我们需要为类型实现具体的特征,定义行为具体是怎么样的。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>首先来为 <code>Post</code> 和 <code>Weibo</code> 实现 <code>Summary</code> 特征:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>pub trait Summary {
|
|
|
|
|
fn summarize(&self) -> String;
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
pub struct Post {
|
|
|
|
|
pub title: String, // 标题
|
|
|
|
|
pub author: String, // 作者
|
|
|
|
|
pub content: String, // 内容
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
impl Summary for Post {
|
|
|
|
|
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
|
|
|
|
format!("文章{}, 作者是{}", self.title, self.author)
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
pub struct Weibo {
|
|
|
|
|
pub username: String,
|
|
|
|
|
pub content: String
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
impl Summary for Weibo {
|
|
|
|
|
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
|
|
|
|
format!("{}发表了微博{}", self.username, self.content)
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>实现特征的语法与为结构体、枚举实现方法很像:<code>impl Summary for Post</code>,读作“为 <code>Post</code> 类型实现 <code>Summary</code> 特征”,然后在 <code>impl</code> 的花括号中实现该特征的具体方法。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>接下来就可以在这个类型上调用特征的方法:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
let post = Post{title: "Rust语言简介".to_string(),author: "Sunface".to_string(), content: "Rust棒极了!".to_string()};
|
|
|
|
|
let weibo = Weibo{username: "sunface".to_string(),content: "好像微博没Tweet好用".to_string()};
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
println!("{}",post.summarize());
|
|
|
|
|
println!("{}",weibo.summarize());
|
|
|
|
|
}</code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>运行输出:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><code class="language-console">文章 Rust 语言简介, 作者是Sunface
|
|
|
|
|
sunface发表了微博好像微博没Tweet好用
|
|
|
|
|
</code></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>说实话,如果特征仅仅如此,你可能会觉得花里胡哨没啥用,接下来就让你见识下 <code>trait</code> 真正的威力。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<h4 id="特征定义与实现的位置孤儿规则"><a class="header" href="#特征定义与实现的位置孤儿规则">特征定义与实现的位置(孤儿规则)</a></h4>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>上面我们将 <code>Summary</code> 定义成了 <code>pub</code> 公开的。这样,如果他人想要使用我们的 <code>Summary</code> 特征,则可以引入到他们的包中,然后再进行实现。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>关于特征实现与定义的位置,有一条非常重要的原则:<strong>如果你想要为类型</strong> <code>A</code> <strong>实现特征</strong> <code>T</code><strong>,那么</strong> <code>A</code> <strong>或者</strong> <code>T</code> <strong>至少有一个是在当前作用域中定义的!</strong> 例如我们可以为上面的 <code>Post</code> 类型实现标准库中的 <code>Display</code> 特征,这是因为 <code>Post</code> 类型定义在当前的作用域中。同时,我们也可以在当前包中为 <code>String</code> 类型实现 <code>Summary</code> 特征,因为 <code>Summary</code> 定义在当前作用域中。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>但是你无法在当前作用域中,为 <code>String</code> 类型实现 <code>Display</code> 特征,因为它们俩都定义在标准库中,其定义所在的位置都不在当前作用域,跟你半毛钱关系都没有,看看就行了。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>该规则被称为<strong>孤儿规则</strong>,可以确保其它人编写的代码不会破坏你的代码,也确保了你不会莫名其妙就破坏了风马牛不相及的代码。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<h4 id="默认实现"><a class="header" href="#默认实现">默认实现</a></h4>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>你可以在特征中定义具有<strong>默认实现</strong>的方法,这样其它类型无需再实现该方法,或者也可以选择重载该方法:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>pub trait Summary {
|
|
|
|
|
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
|
|
|
|
String::from("(Read more...)")
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>上面为 <code>Summary</code> 定义了一个默认实现,下面我们编写段代码来测试下:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>impl Summary for Post {}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
impl Summary for Weibo {
|
|
|
|
|
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
|
|
|
|
format!("{}发表了微博{}", self.username, self.content)
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>可以看到,<code>Post</code> 选择了默认实现,而 <code>Weibo</code> 重载了该方法,调用和输出如下:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span> println!("{}",post.summarize());
|
|
|
|
|
println!("{}",weibo.summarize());
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><code class="language-console">(Read more...)
|
|
|
|
|
sunface发表了微博好像微博没Tweet好用
|
|
|
|
|
</code></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>默认实现允许调用相同特征中的其他方法,哪怕这些方法没有默认实现。如此,特征可以提供很多有用的功能而只需要实现指定的一小部分内容。例如,我们可以定义 <code>Summary</code> 特征,使其具有一个需要实现的 <code>summarize_author</code> 方法,然后定义一个 <code>summarize</code> 方法,此方法的默认实现调用 <code>summarize_author</code> 方法:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>pub trait Summary {
|
|
|
|
|
fn summarize_author(&self) -> String;
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
fn summarize(&self) -> String {
|
|
|
|
|
format!("(Read more from {}...)", self.summarize_author())
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>为了使用 <code>Summary</code>,只需要实现 <code>summarize_author</code> 方法即可:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>impl Summary for Weibo {
|
|
|
|
|
fn summarize_author(&self) -> String {
|
|
|
|
|
format!("@{}", self.username)
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
println!("1 new weibo: {}", weibo.summarize());
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p><code>weibo.summarize()</code> 会先调用 <code>Summary</code> 特征默认实现的 <code>summarize</code> 方法,通过该方法进而调用 <code>Weibo</code> 为 <code>Summary</code> 实现的 <code>summarize_author</code> 方法,最终输出:<code>1 new weibo: (Read more from @horse_ebooks...)</code>。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<h2 id="使用特征作为函数参数"><a class="header" href="#使用特征作为函数参数">使用特征作为函数参数</a></h2>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>之前提到过,特征如果仅仅是用来实现方法,那真的有些大材小用,现在我们来讲下,真正可以让特征大放光彩的地方。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>现在,先定义一个函数,使用特征作为函数参数:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>pub fn notify(item: &impl Summary) {
|
|
|
|
|
println!("Breaking news! {}", item.summarize());
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p><code>impl Summary</code>,只能说想出这个类型的人真的是起名鬼才,简直太贴切了,顾名思义,它的意思是 <strong>实现了<code>Summary</code>特征</strong> 的 <code>item</code> 参数。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>你可以使用任何实现了 <code>Summary</code> 特征的类型作为该函数的参数,同时在函数体内,还可以调用该特征的方法,例如 <code>summarize</code> 方法。具体的说,可以传递 <code>Post</code> 或 <code>Weibo</code> 的实例来作为参数,而其它类如 <code>String</code> 或者 <code>i32</code> 的类型则不能用做该函数的参数,因为它们没有实现 <code>Summary</code> 特征。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<h2 id="特征约束trait-bound"><a class="header" href="#特征约束trait-bound">特征约束(trait bound)</a></h2>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>虽然 <code>impl Trait</code> 这种语法非常好理解,但是实际上它只是一个语法糖:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>pub fn notify<T: Summary>(item: &T) {
|
|
|
|
|
println!("Breaking news! {}", item.summarize());
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>真正的完整书写形式如上所述,形如 <code>T: Summary</code> 被称为<strong>特征约束</strong>。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>在简单的场景下 <code>impl Trait</code> 这种语法糖就足够使用,但是对于复杂的场景,特征约束可以让我们拥有更大的灵活性和语法表现能力,例如一个函数接受两个 <code>impl Summary</code> 的参数:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>pub fn notify(item1: &impl Summary, item2: &impl Summary) {}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>如果函数两个参数是不同的类型,那么上面的方法很好,只要这两个类型都实现了 <code>Summary</code> 特征即可。但是如果我们想要强制函数的两个参数是同一类型呢?上面的语法就无法做到这种限制,此时我们只能使特征约束来实现:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>pub fn notify<T: Summary>(item1: &T, item2: &T) {}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>泛型类型 <code>T</code> 说明了 <code>item1</code> 和 <code>item2</code> 必须拥有同样的类型,同时 <code>T: Summary</code> 说明了 <code>T</code> 必须实现 <code>Summary</code> 特征。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<h4 id="多重约束"><a class="header" href="#多重约束">多重约束</a></h4>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>除了单个约束条件,我们还可以指定多个约束条件,例如除了让参数实现 <code>Summary</code> 特征外,还可以让参数实现 <code>Display</code> 特征以控制它的格式化输出:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>pub fn notify(item: &(impl Summary + Display)) {}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>除了上述的语法糖形式,还能使用特征约束的形式:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>pub fn notify<T: Summary + Display>(item: &T) {}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>通过这两个特征,就可以使用 <code>item.summarize</code> 方法,以及通过 <code>println!("{}", item)</code> 来格式化输出 <code>item</code>。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<h4 id="where-约束"><a class="header" href="#where-约束">Where 约束</a></h4>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>当特征约束变得很多时,函数的签名将变得很复杂:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>fn some_function<T: Display + Clone, U: Clone + Debug>(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32 {}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>严格来说,上面的例子还是不够复杂,但是我们还是能对其做一些形式上的改进,通过 <code>where</code>:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>fn some_function<T, U>(t: &T, u: &U) -> i32
|
|
|
|
|
where T: Display + Clone,
|
|
|
|
|
U: Clone + Debug
|
|
|
|
|
{}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<h4 id="使用特征约束有条件地实现方法或特征"><a class="header" href="#使用特征约束有条件地实现方法或特征">使用特征约束有条件地实现方法或特征</a></h4>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>特征约束,可以让我们在指定类型 + 指定特征的条件下去实现方法,例如:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>use std::fmt::Display;
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
struct Pair<T> {
|
|
|
|
|
x: T,
|
|
|
|
|
y: T,
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
impl<T> Pair<T> {
|
|
|
|
|
fn new(x: T, y: T) -> Self {
|
|
|
|
|
Self {
|
|
|
|
|
x,
|
|
|
|
|
y,
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
impl<T: Display + PartialOrd> Pair<T> {
|
|
|
|
|
fn cmp_display(&self) {
|
|
|
|
|
if self.x >= self.y {
|
|
|
|
|
println!("The largest member is x = {}", self.x);
|
|
|
|
|
} else {
|
|
|
|
|
println!("The largest member is y = {}", self.y);
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p><code>cmp_display</code> 方法,并不是所有的 <code>Pair<T></code> 结构体对象都可以拥有,只有 <code>T</code> 同时实现了 <code>Display + PartialOrd</code> 的 <code>Pair<T></code> 才可以拥有此方法。
|
|
|
|
|
该函数可读性会更好,因为泛型参数、参数、返回值都在一起,可以快速的阅读,同时每个泛型参数的特征也在新的代码行中通过<strong>特征约束</strong>进行了约束。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p><strong>也可以有条件地实现特征</strong>,例如,标准库为任何实现了 <code>Display</code> 特征的类型实现了 <code>ToString</code> 特征:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>impl<T: Display> ToString for T {
|
|
|
|
|
// --snip--
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>我们可以对任何实现了 <code>Display</code> 特征的类型调用由 <code>ToString</code> 定义的 <code>to_string</code> 方法。例如,可以将整型转换为对应的 <code>String</code> 值,因为整型实现了 <code>Display</code>:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>let s = 3.to_string();
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<h2 id="函数返回中的-impl-trait"><a class="header" href="#函数返回中的-impl-trait">函数返回中的 <code>impl Trait</code></a></h2>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>可以通过 <code>impl Trait</code> 来说明一个函数返回了一个类型,该类型实现了某个特征:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>fn returns_summarizable() -> impl Summary {
|
|
|
|
|
Weibo {
|
|
|
|
|
username: String::from("sunface"),
|
|
|
|
|
content: String::from(
|
|
|
|
|
"m1 max太厉害了,电脑再也不会卡",
|
|
|
|
|
)
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>因为 <code>Weibo</code> 实现了 <code>Summary</code>,因此这里可以用它来作为返回值。要注意的是,虽然我们知道这里是一个 <code>Weibo</code> 类型,但是对于 <code>returns_summarizable</code> 的调用者而言,他只知道返回了一个实现了 <code>Summary</code> 特征的对象,但是并不知道返回了一个 <code>Weibo</code> 类型。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>这种 <code>impl Trait</code> 形式的返回值,在一种场景下非常非常有用,那就是返回的真实类型非常复杂,你不知道该怎么声明时(毕竟 Rust 要求你必须标出所有的类型),此时就可以用 <code>impl Trait</code> 的方式简单返回。例如,闭包和迭代器就是很复杂,只有编译器才知道那玩意的真实类型,如果让你写出来它们的具体类型,估计内心有一万只草泥马奔腾,好在你可以用 <code>impl Iterator</code> 来告诉调用者,返回了一个迭代器,因为所有迭代器都会实现 <code>Iterator</code> 特征。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>但是这种返回值方式有一个很大的限制:只能有一个具体的类型,例如:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>fn returns_summarizable(switch: bool) -> impl Summary {
|
|
|
|
|
if switch {
|
|
|
|
|
Post {
|
|
|
|
|
title: String::from(
|
|
|
|
|
"Penguins win the Stanley Cup Championship!",
|
|
|
|
|
),
|
|
|
|
|
author: String::from("Iceburgh"),
|
|
|
|
|
content: String::from(
|
|
|
|
|
"The Pittsburgh Penguins once again are the best \
|
|
|
|
|
hockey team in the NHL.",
|
|
|
|
|
),
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
} else {
|
|
|
|
|
Weibo {
|
|
|
|
|
username: String::from("horse_ebooks"),
|
|
|
|
|
content: String::from(
|
|
|
|
|
"of course, as you probably already know, people",
|
|
|
|
|
),
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>以上的代码就无法通过编译,因为它返回了两个不同的类型 <code>Post</code> 和 <code>Weibo</code>。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><code class="language-console">`if` and `else` have incompatible types
|
|
|
|
|
expected struct `Post`, found struct `Weibo`
|
|
|
|
|
</code></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>报错提示我们 <code>if</code> 和 <code>else</code> 返回了不同的类型。如果想要实现返回不同的类型,需要使用下一章节中的<a href="https://course.rs/basic/trait/trait-object.html">特征对象</a>。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<h2 id="修复上一节中的-largest-函数"><a class="header" href="#修复上一节中的-largest-函数">修复上一节中的 <code>largest</code> 函数</a></h2>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>还记得上一节中的<a href="https://course.rs/basic/trait/generic.html#%E6%B3%9B%E5%9E%8B%E8%AF%A6%E8%A7%A3">例子</a>吧,当时留下一个疑问,该如何解决编译报错:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>error[E0369]: binary operation `>` cannot be applied to type `T` // 无法在 `T` 类型上应用`>`运算符
|
|
|
|
|
--> src/main.rs:5:17
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
5 | if item > largest {
|
|
|
|
|
| ---- ^ ------- T
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
| T
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
help: consider restricting type parameter `T` // 考虑使用以下的特征来约束 `T`
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 | fn largest<T: std::cmp::PartialOrd>(list: &[T]) -> T {
|
|
|
|
|
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>在 <code>largest</code> 函数体中我们想要使用大于运算符(<code>></code>)比较两个 <code>T</code> 类型的值。这个运算符是标准库中特征 <code>std::cmp::PartialOrd</code> 的一个默认方法。所以需要在 <code>T</code> 的特征约束中指定 <code>PartialOrd</code>,这样 <code>largest</code> 函数可以用于内部元素类型可比较大小的数组切片。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>由于 <code>PartialOrd</code> 位于 <code>prelude</code> 中所以并不需要通过 <code>std::cmp</code> 手动将其引入作用域。所以可以将 <code>largest</code> 的签名修改为如下:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>fn largest<T: PartialOrd>(list: &[T]) -> T {}
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>但是此时编译,又会出现新的错误:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021"><span class="boring">#![allow(unused)]
|
|
|
|
|
</span><span class="boring">fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
</span>error[E0508]: cannot move out of type `[T]`, a non-copy slice
|
|
|
|
|
--> src/main.rs:2:23
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2 | let mut largest = list[0];
|
|
|
|
|
| ^^^^^^^
|
|
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
| cannot move out of here
|
|
|
|
|
| help: consider using a reference instead: `&list[0]`
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
error[E0507]: cannot move out of borrowed content
|
|
|
|
|
--> src/main.rs:4:9
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4 | for &item in list.iter() {
|
|
|
|
|
| ^----
|
|
|
|
|
| ||
|
|
|
|
|
| |hint: to prevent move, use `ref item` or `ref mut item`
|
|
|
|
|
| cannot move out of borrowed content
|
|
|
|
|
<span class="boring">}</span></code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>错误的核心是 <code>cannot move out of type [T], a non-copy slice</code>,原因是 <code>T</code> 没有<a href="https://course.rs/basic/ownership/ownership.html#%E6%8B%B7%E8%B4%9D%E6%B5%85%E6%8B%B7%E8%B4%9D">实现 <code>Copy</code> 特性</a>,因此我们只能把所有权进行转移,毕竟只有 <code>i32</code> 等基础类型才实现了 <code>Copy</code> 特性,可以存储在栈上,而 <code>T</code> 可以指代任何类型(严格来说是实现了 <code>PartialOrd</code> 特征的所有类型)。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>因此,为了让 <code>T</code> 拥有 <code>Copy</code> 特性,我们可以增加特征约束:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021">fn largest<T: PartialOrd + Copy>(list: &[T]) -> T {
|
|
|
|
|
let mut largest = list[0];
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
for &item in list.iter() {
|
|
|
|
|
if item > largest {
|
|
|
|
|
largest = item;
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
largest
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
let number_list = vec![34, 50, 25, 100, 65];
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
let result = largest(&number_list);
|
|
|
|
|
println!("The largest number is {}", result);
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
let char_list = vec!['y', 'm', 'a', 'q'];
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
let result = largest(&char_list);
|
|
|
|
|
println!("The largest char is {}", result);
|
|
|
|
|
}</code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>如果并不希望限制 <code>largest</code> 函数只能用于实现了 <code>Copy</code> 特征的类型,我们可以在 <code>T</code> 的特征约束中指定 <a href="https://course.rs/basic/ownership/ownership.html#%E5%85%8B%E9%9A%86%E6%B7%B1%E6%8B%B7%E8%B4%9D"><code>Clone</code> 特征</a> 而不是 <code>Copy</code> 特征。并克隆 <code>list</code> 中的每一个值使得 <code>largest</code> 函数拥有其所有权。使用 <code>clone</code> 函数意味着对于类似 <code>String</code> 这样拥有堆上数据的类型,会潜在地分配更多堆上空间,而堆分配在涉及大量数据时可能会相当缓慢。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>另一种 <code>largest</code> 的实现方式是返回在 <code>list</code> 中 <code>T</code> 值的引用。如果我们将函数返回值从 <code>T</code> 改为 <code>&T</code> 并改变函数体使其能够返回一个引用,我们将不需要任何 <code>Clone</code> 或 <code>Copy</code> 的特征约束而且也不会有任何的堆分配。尝试自己实现这种替代解决方式吧!</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<h2 id="通过-derive-派生特征"><a class="header" href="#通过-derive-派生特征">通过 <code>derive</code> 派生特征</a></h2>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>在本书中,形如 <code>#[derive(Debug)]</code> 的代码已经出现了很多次,这种是一种特征派生语法,被 <code>derive</code> 标记的对象会自动实现对应的默认特征代码,继承相应的功能。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>例如 <code>Debug</code> 特征,它有一套自动实现的默认代码,当你给一个结构体标记后,就可以使用 <code>println!("{:?}", s)</code> 的形式打印该结构体的对象。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>再如 <code>Copy</code> 特征,它也有一套自动实现的默认代码,当标记到一个类型上时,可以让这个类型自动实现 <code>Copy</code> 特征,进而可以调用 <code>copy</code> 方法,进行自我复制。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>总之,<code>derive</code> 派生出来的是 Rust 默认给我们提供的特征,在开发过程中极大的简化了自己手动实现相应特征的需求,当然,如果你有特殊的需求,还可以自己手动重载该实现。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>详细的 <code>derive</code> 列表参见<a href="https://course.rs/appendix/derive.html">附录-派生特征</a>。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<h2 id="调用方法需要引入特征"><a class="header" href="#调用方法需要引入特征">调用方法需要引入特征</a></h2>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>在一些场景中,使用 <code>as</code> 关键字做类型转换会有比较大的限制,因为你想要在类型转换上拥有完全的控制,例如处理转换错误,那么你将需要 <code>TryInto</code>:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021">use std::convert::TryInto;
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
let a: i32 = 10;
|
|
|
|
|
let b: u16 = 100;
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
let b_ = b.try_into()
|
|
|
|
|
.unwrap();
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
if a < b_ {
|
|
|
|
|
println!("Ten is less than one hundred.");
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}</code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>上面代码中引入了 <code>std::convert::TryInto</code> 特征,但是却没有使用它,可能有些同学会为此困惑,主要原因在于<strong>如果你要使用一个特征的方法,那么你需要将该特征引入当前的作用域中</strong>,我们在上面用到了 <code>try_into</code> 方法,因此需要引入对应的特征。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>但是 Rust 又提供了一个非常便利的办法,即把最常用的标准库中的特征通过 <a href="https://course.rs/appendix/prelude.html"><code>std::prelude</code></a> 模块提前引入到当前作用域中,其中包括了 <code>std::convert::TryInto</code>,你可以尝试删除第一行的代码 <code>use ...</code>,看看是否会报错。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<h2 id="几个综合例子"><a class="header" href="#几个综合例子">几个综合例子</a></h2>
|
|
|
|
|
<h4 id="为自定义类型实现--操作"><a class="header" href="#为自定义类型实现--操作">为自定义类型实现 <code>+</code> 操作</a></h4>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>在 Rust 中除了数值类型的加法,<code>String</code> 也可以做<a href="https://course.rs/basic/compound-type/string-slice.html#%E6%93%8D%E4%BD%9C%E5%AD%97%E7%AC%A6%E4%B8%B2">加法</a>,因为 Rust 为该类型实现了 <code>std::ops::Add</code> 特征,同理,如果我们为自定义类型实现了该特征,那就可以自己实现 <code>Point1 + Point2</code> 的操作:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021">use std::ops::Add;
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
// 为Point结构体派生Debug特征,用于格式化输出
|
|
|
|
|
#[derive(Debug)]
|
|
|
|
|
struct Point<T: Add<T, Output = T>> { //限制类型T必须实现了Add特征,否则无法进行+操作。
|
|
|
|
|
x: T,
|
|
|
|
|
y: T,
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
impl<T: Add<T, Output = T>> Add for Point<T> {
|
|
|
|
|
type Output = Point<T>;
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
fn add(self, p: Point<T>) -> Point<T> {
|
|
|
|
|
Point{
|
|
|
|
|
x: self.x + p.x,
|
|
|
|
|
y: self.y + p.y,
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
fn add<T: Add<T, Output=T>>(a:T, b:T) -> T {
|
|
|
|
|
a + b
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
let p1 = Point{x: 1.1f32, y: 1.1f32};
|
|
|
|
|
let p2 = Point{x: 2.1f32, y: 2.1f32};
|
|
|
|
|
println!("{:?}", add(p1, p2));
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
let p3 = Point{x: 1i32, y: 1i32};
|
|
|
|
|
let p4 = Point{x: 2i32, y: 2i32};
|
|
|
|
|
println!("{:?}", add(p3, p4));
|
|
|
|
|
}</code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<h4 id="自定义类型的打印输出"><a class="header" href="#自定义类型的打印输出">自定义类型的打印输出</a></h4>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>在开发过程中,往往只要使用 <code>#[derive(Debug)]</code> 对我们的自定义类型进行标注,即可实现打印输出的功能:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021">#[derive(Debug)]
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|
struct Point{
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|
x: i32,
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|
y: i32
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|
}
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|
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|
|
fn main() {
|
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let p = Point{x:3,y:3};
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|
println!("{:?}",p);
|
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|
|
|
}</code></pre></pre>
|
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|
<p>但是在实际项目中,往往需要对我们的自定义类型进行自定义的格式化输出,以让用户更好的阅读理解我们的类型,此时就要为自定义类型实现 <code>std::fmt::Display</code> 特征:</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<pre><pre class="playground"><code class="language-rust edition2021">#![allow(dead_code)]
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
use std::fmt;
|
|
|
|
|
use std::fmt::{Display};
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
#[derive(Debug,PartialEq)]
|
|
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|
|
enum FileState {
|
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|
|
|
Open,
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|
|
|
Closed,
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|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
#[derive(Debug)]
|
|
|
|
|
struct File {
|
|
|
|
|
name: String,
|
|
|
|
|
data: Vec<u8>,
|
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|
|
|
state: FileState,
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|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
impl Display for FileState {
|
|
|
|
|
fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
|
|
|
|
|
match *self {
|
|
|
|
|
FileState::Open => write!(f, "OPEN"),
|
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|
|
|
FileState::Closed => write!(f, "CLOSED"),
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
impl Display for File {
|
|
|
|
|
fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
|
|
|
|
|
write!(f, "<{} ({})>",
|
|
|
|
|
self.name, self.state)
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
impl File {
|
|
|
|
|
fn new(name: &str) -> File {
|
|
|
|
|
File {
|
|
|
|
|
name: String::from(name),
|
|
|
|
|
data: Vec::new(),
|
|
|
|
|
state: FileState::Closed,
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
fn main() {
|
|
|
|
|
let f6 = File::new("f6.txt");
|
|
|
|
|
//...
|
|
|
|
|
println!("{:?}", f6);
|
|
|
|
|
println!("{}", f6);
|
|
|
|
|
}</code></pre></pre>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>以上两个例子较为复杂,目的是为读者展示下真实的使用场景长什么样,因此需要读者细细阅读,最终消化这些知识对于你的 Rust 之路会有莫大的帮助。</p>
|
|
|
|
|
<p>最后,特征和特征约束,是 Rust 中极其重要的概念,如果你还是没搞懂,强烈建议回头再看一遍,或者寻找相关的资料进行补充学习。如果已经觉得掌握了,那么就可以进入下一节的学习。</p>
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<h2 id="课后练习"><a class="header" href="#课后练习">课后练习</a></h2>
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<blockquote>
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|
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<p><a href="https://practice-zh.course.rs/generics-traits/traits.html">Rust By Practice</a>,支持代码在线编辑和运行,并提供详细的<a href="https://github.com/sunface/rust-by-practice/blob/master/solutions/generics-traits/traits.md">习题解答</a>。</p>
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